| Copyright | (C) 2015 Oleg Grenrus |
|---|---|
| License | BSD3 |
| Maintainer | Oleg Grenrus <oleg.grenrus@iki.fi> |
| Safe Haskell | None |
| Language | Haskell2010 |
Data.Aeson.Compat
Contents
Description
Compatibility notices
decodeetc. work as inaeson >=0.9- but it is generalised to work in any
MonadThrow(that is extra) .:?works as inaeson ||=0.11.:!works as inaeson ||=0.11and as.:?did inaeson ==0.10.*- Orphan instances
FromJSONDayandFromJSONLocalTimeforaeson <0.10 Encodingrelated functionality is not added. It's present only withaeson >=0.10
- decode :: (FromJSON a, MonadThrow m) => ByteString -> m a
- decode' :: (FromJSON a, MonadThrow m) => ByteString -> m a
- newtype AesonException = AesonException String
- eitherDecode :: FromJSON a => ByteString -> Either String a
- eitherDecode' :: FromJSON a => ByteString -> Either String a
- encode :: ToJSON a => a -> ByteString
- decodeStrict :: (FromJSON a, MonadThrow m) => ByteString -> m a
- decodeStrict' :: (FromJSON a, MonadThrow m) => ByteString -> m a
- eitherDecodeStrict :: FromJSON a => ByteString -> Either String a
- eitherDecodeStrict' :: FromJSON a => ByteString -> Either String a
- data Value :: *
- type Encoding = Encoding' Value
- fromEncoding :: Encoding' tag -> Builder
- type Array = Vector Value
- type Object = HashMap Text Value
- newtype DotNetTime :: * = DotNetTime {}
- class FromJSON a where
- data Result a :: * -> *
- fromJSON :: FromJSON a => Value -> Result a
- class ToJSON a where
- class KeyValue kv where
- class GFromJSON arity (f :: * -> *)
- type GToJSON = GToJSON Value
- type GToEncoding = GToJSON Encoding
- genericToJSON :: (Generic a, GToJSON Value Zero (Rep a)) => Options -> a -> Value
- genericToEncoding :: (Generic a, GToJSON Encoding Zero (Rep a)) => Options -> a -> Encoding
- genericParseJSON :: (Generic a, GFromJSON Zero (Rep a)) => Options -> Value -> Parser a
- defaultOptions :: Options
- withObject :: String -> (Object -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a
- withText :: String -> (Text -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a
- withArray :: String -> (Array -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a
- withNumber :: String -> (Number -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a
- withScientific :: String -> (Scientific -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a
- withBool :: String -> (Bool -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a
- withEmbeddedJSON :: FromJSON a => String -> (Value -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a
- data Series :: *
- pairs :: Series -> Encoding
- foldable :: (Foldable t, ToJSON a) => t a -> Encoding
- (.:) :: FromJSON a => Object -> Text -> Parser a
- (.:?) :: FromJSON a => Object -> Text -> Parser (Maybe a)
- (.:!) :: FromJSON a => Object -> Text -> Parser (Maybe a)
- (.!=) :: Parser (Maybe a) -> a -> Parser a
- object :: [Pair] -> Value
- json :: Parser Value
- json' :: Parser Value
- value :: Parser Value
- value' :: Parser Value
- data Parser a :: * -> *
Encoding and decoding
Direct encoding
decode :: (FromJSON a, MonadThrow m) => ByteString -> m a Source #
Like original decode but in arbitrary MonadThrow.
Parse a top-level JSON value, i.e. also strings, numbers etc.
decode' :: (FromJSON a, MonadThrow m) => ByteString -> m a Source #
Like original decode' but in arbitrary MonadThrow.
newtype AesonException Source #
Exception thrown by decode - family of functions in this module.
Constructors
| AesonException String |
Instances
eitherDecode :: FromJSON a => ByteString -> Either String a #
Like decode but returns an error message when decoding fails.
eitherDecode' :: FromJSON a => ByteString -> Either String a #
Like decode' but returns an error message when decoding fails.
encode :: ToJSON a => a -> ByteString #
Efficiently serialize a JSON value as a lazy ByteString.
This is implemented in terms of the ToJSON class's toEncoding method.
Variants for strict bytestrings
decodeStrict :: (FromJSON a, MonadThrow m) => ByteString -> m a Source #
Like original decodeStrict but in arbitrary MonadThrow.
decodeStrict' :: (FromJSON a, MonadThrow m) => ByteString -> m a Source #
Like original decodeStrict' but in arbitrary MonadThrow.
eitherDecodeStrict :: FromJSON a => ByteString -> Either String a #
Like decodeStrict but returns an error message when decoding fails.
eitherDecodeStrict' :: FromJSON a => ByteString -> Either String a #
Like decodeStrict' but returns an error message when decoding fails.
Core JSON types
A JSON value represented as a Haskell value.
Instances
| Eq Value | |
| Data Value | |
| Read Value | |
| Show Value | |
| IsString Value | |
| Generic Value | |
| Lift Value | |
| FromString Encoding | |
| FromString Value | |
| Hashable Value | |
| ToJSON Value | |
| KeyValue Pair | |
| FromJSON Value | |
| NFData Value | |
| FromPairs Encoding Series | |
| GKeyValue Encoding Series | |
| GToJSON Encoding arity (U1 *) | |
| GToJSON Value arity (U1 *) | |
| ToJSON1 f => GToJSON Encoding One (Rec1 * f) | |
| ToJSON1 f => GToJSON Value One (Rec1 * f) | |
| ToJSON a => GToJSON Encoding arity (K1 * i a) | |
| (EncodeProduct arity a, EncodeProduct arity b) => GToJSON Encoding arity ((:*:) * a b) | |
| ToJSON a => GToJSON Value arity (K1 * i a) | |
| (WriteProduct arity a, WriteProduct arity b, ProductSize a, ProductSize b) => GToJSON Value arity ((:*:) * a b) | |
| (ToJSON1 f, GToJSON Encoding One g) => GToJSON Encoding One ((:.:) * * f g) | |
| (ToJSON1 f, GToJSON Value One g) => GToJSON Value One ((:.:) * * f g) | |
| FromPairs Value (DList Pair) | |
| ToJSON v => GKeyValue v (DList Pair) | |
| (GToJSON Encoding arity a, ConsToJSON Encoding arity a, Constructor Meta c) => SumToJSON' * TwoElemArray Encoding arity (C1 * c a) | |
| (GToJSON Value arity a, ConsToJSON Value arity a, Constructor Meta c) => SumToJSON' * TwoElemArray Value arity (C1 * c a) | |
| type Rep Value | |
fromEncoding :: Encoding' tag -> Builder #
Acquire the underlying bytestring builder.
Convenience types
newtype DotNetTime :: * #
A newtype wrapper for UTCTime that uses the same non-standard
serialization format as Microsoft .NET, whose
System.DateTime
type is by default serialized to JSON as in the following example:
/Date(1302547608878)/
The number represents milliseconds since the Unix epoch.
Constructors
| DotNetTime | |
Fields
| |
Type conversion
A type that can be converted from JSON, with the possibility of failure.
In many cases, you can get the compiler to generate parsing code for you (see below). To begin, let's cover writing an instance by hand.
There are various reasons a conversion could fail. For example, an
Object could be missing a required key, an Array could be of
the wrong size, or a value could be of an incompatible type.
The basic ways to signal a failed conversion are as follows:
emptyandmzerowork, but are terse and uninformative;failyields a custom error message;typeMismatchproduces an informative message for cases when the value encountered is not of the expected type.
An example type and instance using typeMismatch:
-- Allow ourselves to writeTextliterals. {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-} data Coord = Coord { x :: Double, y :: Double } instanceFromJSONCoord whereparseJSON(Objectv) = Coord<$>v.:"x"<*>v.:"y" -- We do not expect a non-Objectvalue here. -- We could usemzeroto fail, buttypeMismatch-- gives a much more informative error message.parseJSONinvalid =typeMismatch"Coord" invalid
For this common case of only being concerned with a single
type of JSON value, the functions withObject, withNumber, etc.
are provided. Their use is to be preferred when possible, since
they are more terse. Using withObject, we can rewrite the above instance
(assuming the same language extension and data type) as:
instanceFromJSONCoord whereparseJSON=withObject"Coord" $ \v -> Coord<$>v.:"x"<*>v.:"y"
Instead of manually writing your FromJSON instance, there are two options
to do it automatically:
- Data.Aeson.TH provides Template Haskell functions which will derive an instance at compile time. The generated instance is optimized for your type so it will probably be more efficient than the following option.
- The compiler can provide a default generic implementation for
parseJSON.
To use the second, simply add a deriving clause to your
datatype and declare a GenericFromJSON instance for your datatype without giving
a definition for parseJSON.
For example, the previous example can be simplified to just:
{-# LANGUAGE DeriveGeneric #-}
import GHC.Generics
data Coord = Coord { x :: Double, y :: Double } deriving Generic
instance FromJSON Coord
The default implementation will be equivalent to
parseJSON = ; If you need different
options, you can customize the generic decoding by defining:genericParseJSON defaultOptions
customOptions =defaultOptions{fieldLabelModifier=maptoUpper} instanceFromJSONCoord whereparseJSON=genericParseJSONcustomOptions
Instances
| FromJSON Bool | |
| FromJSON Char | |
| FromJSON Double | |
| FromJSON Float | |
| FromJSON Int | |
| FromJSON Int8 | |
| FromJSON Int16 | |
| FromJSON Int32 | |
| FromJSON Int64 | |
| FromJSON Integer | WARNING: Only parse Integers from trusted input since an
attacker could easily fill up the memory of the target system by
specifying a scientific number with a big exponent like
|
| FromJSON Natural | |
| FromJSON Ordering | |
| FromJSON Word | |
| FromJSON Word8 | |
| FromJSON Word16 | |
| FromJSON Word32 | |
| FromJSON Word64 | |
| FromJSON () | |
| FromJSON Scientific | |
| FromJSON Number | |
| FromJSON Text | |
| FromJSON UTCTime | |
| FromJSON Value | |
| FromJSON DotNetTime | |
| FromJSON Text | |
| FromJSON Version | |
| FromJSON CTime | |
| FromJSON IntSet | |
| FromJSON ZonedTime | Supported string formats:
The first space may instead be a |
| FromJSON LocalTime | |
| FromJSON TimeOfDay | |
| FromJSON NominalDiffTime | WARNING: Only parse lengths of time from trusted input
since an attacker could easily fill up the memory of the target
system by specifying a scientific number with a big exponent like
|
| FromJSON DiffTime | WARNING: Only parse lengths of time from trusted input
since an attacker could easily fill up the memory of the target
system by specifying a scientific number with a big exponent like
|
| FromJSON Day | |
| FromJSON UUID | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON [a] | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Maybe a) | |
| (FromJSON a, Integral a) => FromJSON (Ratio a) | |
| HasResolution a => FromJSON (Fixed a) | WARNING: Only parse fixed-precision numbers from trusted input
since an attacker could easily fill up the memory of the target
system by specifying a scientific number with a big exponent like
|
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Min a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Max a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (First a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Last a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (WrappedMonoid a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Option a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (NonEmpty a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Identity a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Dual a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (First a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Last a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (IntMap a) | |
| FromJSON v => FromJSON (Tree v) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Seq a) | |
| (Ord a, FromJSON a) => FromJSON (Set a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (DList a) | |
| (Eq a, Hashable a, FromJSON a) => FromJSON (HashSet a) | |
| (Vector Vector a, FromJSON a) => FromJSON (Vector a) | |
| (Storable a, FromJSON a) => FromJSON (Vector a) | |
| (Prim a, FromJSON a) => FromJSON (Vector a) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Vector a) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b) => FromJSON (Either a b) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b) => FromJSON (a, b) | |
| (FromJSON v, FromJSONKey k, Eq k, Hashable k) => FromJSON (HashMap k v) | |
| (FromJSONKey k, Ord k, FromJSON v) => FromJSON (Map k v) | |
| FromJSON (Proxy k a) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c) => FromJSON (a, b, c) | |
| FromJSON a => FromJSON (Const k a b) | |
| FromJSON b => FromJSON (Tagged k a b) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d) | |
| (FromJSON1 f, FromJSON1 g, FromJSON a) => FromJSON (Product * f g a) | |
| (FromJSON1 f, FromJSON1 g, FromJSON a) => FromJSON (Sum * f g a) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e) | |
| (FromJSON1 f, FromJSON1 g, FromJSON a) => FromJSON (Compose * * f g a) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g, FromJSON h) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g, FromJSON h, FromJSON i) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g, FromJSON h, FromJSON i, FromJSON j) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g, FromJSON h, FromJSON i, FromJSON j, FromJSON k) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g, FromJSON h, FromJSON i, FromJSON j, FromJSON k, FromJSON l) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g, FromJSON h, FromJSON i, FromJSON j, FromJSON k, FromJSON l, FromJSON m) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g, FromJSON h, FromJSON i, FromJSON j, FromJSON k, FromJSON l, FromJSON m, FromJSON n) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n) | |
| (FromJSON a, FromJSON b, FromJSON c, FromJSON d, FromJSON e, FromJSON f, FromJSON g, FromJSON h, FromJSON i, FromJSON j, FromJSON k, FromJSON l, FromJSON m, FromJSON n, FromJSON o) => FromJSON (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o) | |
The result of running a Parser.
fromJSON :: FromJSON a => Value -> Result a #
Convert a value from JSON, failing if the types do not match.
A type that can be converted to JSON.
Instances in general must specify toJSON and should (but don't need
to) specify toEncoding.
An example type and instance:
-- Allow ourselves to writeTextliterals. {-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-} data Coord = Coord { x :: Double, y :: Double } instanceToJSONCoord wheretoJSON(Coord x y) =object["x".=x, "y".=y]toEncoding(Coord x y) =pairs("x".=x<>"y".=y)
Instead of manually writing your ToJSON instance, there are two options
to do it automatically:
- Data.Aeson.TH provides Template Haskell functions which will derive an instance at compile time. The generated instance is optimized for your type so it will probably be more efficient than the following option.
- The compiler can provide a default generic implementation for
toJSON.
To use the second, simply add a deriving clause to your
datatype and declare a GenericToJSON instance. If you require nothing other than
defaultOptions, it is sufficient to write (and this is the only
alternative where the default toJSON implementation is sufficient):
{-# LANGUAGE DeriveGeneric #-}
import GHC.Generics
data Coord = Coord { x :: Double, y :: Double } deriving Generic
instance ToJSON Coord where
toEncoding = genericToEncoding defaultOptions
If on the other hand you wish to customize the generic decoding, you have to implement both methods:
customOptions =defaultOptions{fieldLabelModifier=maptoUpper} instanceToJSONCoord wheretoJSON=genericToJSONcustomOptionstoEncoding=genericToEncodingcustomOptions
Previous versions of this library only had the toJSON method. Adding
toEncoding had to reasons:
- toEncoding is more efficient for the common case that the output of
toJSONis directly serialized to aByteString. Further, expressing either method in terms of the other would be non-optimal. - The choice of defaults allows a smooth transition for existing users:
Existing instances that do not define
toEncodingstill compile and have the correct semantics. This is ensured by making the default implementation oftoEncodingusetoJSON. This produces correct results, but since it performs an intermediate conversion to aValue, it will be less efficient than directly emitting anEncoding. (this also means that specifying nothing more thaninstance ToJSON Coordwould be sufficient as a generically decoding instance, but there probably exists no good reason to not specifytoEncodingin new instances.)
Methods
Convert a Haskell value to a JSON-friendly intermediate type.
toEncoding :: a -> Encoding #
Encode a Haskell value as JSON.
The default implementation of this method creates an
intermediate Value using toJSON. This provides
source-level compatibility for people upgrading from older
versions of this library, but obviously offers no performance
advantage.
To benefit from direct encoding, you must provide an
implementation for this method. The easiest way to do so is by
having your types implement Generic using the DeriveGeneric
extension, and then have GHC generate a method body as follows.
instanceToJSONCoord wheretoEncoding=genericToEncodingdefaultOptions
toJSONList :: [a] -> Value #
toEncodingList :: [a] -> Encoding #
Instances
A key-value pair for encoding a JSON object.
Minimal complete definition
Generic JSON classes and options
class GFromJSON arity (f :: * -> *) #
Class of generic representation types that can be converted from JSON.
Minimal complete definition
Instances
| GFromJSON One Par1 | |
| GFromJSON arity (U1 *) | |
| FromJSON1 f => GFromJSON One (Rec1 * f) | |
| (ConsFromJSON arity a, AllNullary (C1 * c a) allNullary, ParseSum * arity (C1 * c a) allNullary) => GFromJSON arity (D1 * d (C1 * c a)) | |
| ConsFromJSON arity a => GFromJSON arity (C1 * c a) | |
| FromJSON a => GFromJSON arity (K1 * i a) | |
| (AllNullary ((:+:) * a b) allNullary, ParseSum * arity ((:+:) * a b) allNullary) => GFromJSON arity ((:+:) * a b) | |
| (FromProduct arity a, FromProduct arity b, ProductSize a, ProductSize b) => GFromJSON arity ((:*:) * a b) | |
| GFromJSON arity a => GFromJSON arity (M1 * i c a) | |
| (FromJSON1 f, GFromJSON One g) => GFromJSON One ((:.:) * * f g) | |
type GToEncoding = GToJSON Encoding #
genericToJSON :: (Generic a, GToJSON Value Zero (Rep a)) => Options -> a -> Value #
A configurable generic JSON creator. This function applied to
defaultOptions is used as the default for toJSON when the type
is an instance of Generic.
genericToEncoding :: (Generic a, GToJSON Encoding Zero (Rep a)) => Options -> a -> Encoding #
A configurable generic JSON encoder. This function applied to
defaultOptions is used as the default for toEncoding when the type
is an instance of Generic.
genericParseJSON :: (Generic a, GFromJSON Zero (Rep a)) => Options -> Value -> Parser a #
A configurable generic JSON decoder. This function applied to
defaultOptions is used as the default for parseJSON when the
type is an instance of Generic.
Default encoding Options:
Options{fieldLabelModifier= id ,constructorTagModifier= id ,allNullaryToStringTag= True ,omitNothingFields= False ,sumEncoding=defaultTaggedObject,unwrapUnaryRecords= False ,tagSingleConstructors= False }
Inspecting Values
ValueswithObject :: String -> (Object -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a #
withObject expected f valuef to the Object when value
is an Object and fails using typeMismatch expected
withText :: String -> (Text -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a #
withText expected f valuef to the Text when value is a
String and fails using typeMismatch expected
withArray :: String -> (Array -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a #
withArray expected f valuef to the Array when value is
an Array and fails using typeMismatch expected
withNumber :: String -> (Number -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a Source #
Deprecated: Use withScientific instead
withNumber expected f valuef to the Number when value
is a Number and fails using typeMismatch expected
withScientific :: String -> (Scientific -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a #
withScientific expected f valuef to the Scientific number
when value is a Number and fails using typeMismatch expected
withBool :: String -> (Bool -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a #
withBool expected f valuef to the Bool when value is a
Bool and fails using typeMismatch expected
withEmbeddedJSON :: FromJSON a => String -> (Value -> Parser a) -> Value -> Parser a #
Decode a nested JSON-encoded string.
Constructors and accessors
A series of values that, when encoded, should be separated by
commas. Since 0.11.0.0, the .= operator is overloaded to create
either (Text, Value) or Series. You can use Series when
encoding directly to a bytestring builder as in the following
example:
toEncoding (Person name age) = pairs ("name" .= name <> "age" .= age)(.:) :: FromJSON a => Object -> Text -> Parser a #
Retrieve the value associated with the given key of an Object.
The result is empty if the key is not present or the value cannot
be converted to the desired type.
This accessor is appropriate if the key and value must be present
in an object for it to be valid. If the key and value are
optional, use .:? instead.
(.:?) :: FromJSON a => Object -> Text -> Parser (Maybe a) Source #
Retrieve the value associated with the given key of an Object.
The result is Nothing if the key is not present, or empty if
the value cannot be converted to the desired type.
This accessor is most useful if the key and value can be absent
from an object without affecting its validity. If the key and
value are mandatory, use .: instead.
This operator is consistent in aeson >=0.7 && <0.11
(.!=) :: Parser (Maybe a) -> a -> Parser a #
Helper for use in combination with .:? to provide default
values for optional JSON object fields.
This combinator is most useful if the key and value can be absent
from an object without affecting its validity and we know a default
value to assign in that case. If the key and value are mandatory,
use .: instead.
Example usage:
v1 <- o.:?"opt_field_with_dfl" .!= "default_val" v2 <- o.:"mandatory_field" v3 <- o.:?"opt_field2"
Parsing
Parse a top-level JSON value.
The conversion of a parsed value to a Haskell value is deferred until the Haskell value is needed. This may improve performance if only a subset of the results of conversions are needed, but at a cost in thunk allocation.
This function is an alias for value. In aeson 0.8 and earlier, it
parsed only object or array types, in conformance with the
now-obsolete RFC 4627.
Parse a top-level JSON value.
This is a strict version of json which avoids building up thunks
during parsing; it performs all conversions immediately. Prefer
this version if most of the JSON data needs to be accessed.
This function is an alias for value'. In aeson 0.8 and earlier, it
parsed only object or array types, in conformance with the
now-obsolete RFC 4627.
Parse any JSON value. You should usually json in preference to
this function, as this function relaxes the object-or-array
requirement of RFC 4627.
In particular, be careful in using this function if you think your
code might interoperate with Javascript. A naïve Javascript
library that parses JSON data using eval is vulnerable to attack
unless the encoded data represents an object or an array. JSON
implementations in other languages conform to that same restriction
to preserve interoperability and security.